Tops and bottoms: State tolerance of illegal housing in Hong Kong and Calgary

Governmental tolerance of illegality is a common but poorly understood phenomenon. While illegal housing is well studied in poorer cities, its prevalence and operation in rich cities is much less examined. A comparative perspective is necessary to uncover the variety of ways in which illegal housing is tolerated and regulated. This paper compares two different forms of illegal housing in two rich cities with very distinct histories: rooftop squatters in Hong Kong and basement suites in Calgary. As well as considering these irregular housing forms at opposite poles of the vertical spectrum, the paper examines the structuring forces emerging from both the top and the bottom of the social structure, and how they interact to produce the persistence of these housing types. Overlapping and conflicting interests of various groups and limits on governmental actions make toleration of illegal housing useful, in part precisely because of its provisional nature.