Social safeguards and co-benefits in REDD+: a review of the adjacent possible

► Tenure insecurity and lack of effective participation prevent social co-benefits. ► REDD+ policies based on direct payment require tenure security to be effective. ► Participation of local communities will reduce costs of REDD+ implementation. ► Participation of civil society organizations at all scales will promote democracy. ► Tenure security and effective participation will improve local adaptive capacity.