Consequences of actor level livelihood heterogeneity for additionality in a tropical forest payment for environmental services programme with an undifferentiated reward structure

► Some payments for environmental services programmes pay undifferentiated rewards. ► We explicitly link payment structure and participant livelihoods and economies. ► Wide variation in household socioeconomic and demographic status. ► Agricultural households incur greater opportunity costs of PES participation. ► Payments differentiated using simple metrics could improve programme efficacy.