Phototoxicity of nano titanium dioxides in HaCaT keratinocytes—Generation of reactive oxygen species and cell damage

Nano-sized titanium dioxide (TiO2) is among the top five widely used nanomaterials for various applications. In this study, we determine the phototoxicity of TiO2 nanoparticles (nano-TiO2) with different molecular sizes and crystal forms (anatase and rutile) in human skin keratinocytes under UVA irradiation. Our results show that all nano-TiO2 particles caused phototoxicity, as determined by the MTS assay and by cell membrane damage measured by the lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) assay, both of which were UVA dose- and nano-TiO2 dose-dependent. The smaller the particle size of the nano-TiO2 the higher the cell damage. The rutile form of nano-TiO2 showed less phototoxicity than anatase nano-TiO2. The level of photocytotoxicity and cell membrane damage is mainly dependent on the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Using polyunsaturated lipids in plasma membranes and human serum albumin as model targets, and employing electron spin resonance (ESR) oximetry and immuno-spin trapping as unique probing methods, we demonstrated that UVA irradiation of nano-TiO2 can induce significant cell damage, mediated by lipid and protein peroxidation. These overall results suggest that nano-TiO2 is phototoxic to human skin keratinocytes, and that this phototoxicity is mediated by ROS generated during UVA irradiation.

Graphical abstractFigure optionsDownload full-size imageDownload high-quality image (96 K)Download as PowerPoint slideHighlights► We evaluate the phototoxicity of nano-TiO2 with different sizes and crystal forms. ► The smaller the particle size of the nano-TiO2 the higher the cell damage. ► The rutile form of nano-TiO2 showed less phototoxicity than anatase nano-TiO2. ► ESR oximetry and immuno-spin trapping techniques confirm UVA-induced cell damage. ► Phototoxicity is mediated by ROS generated during UVA irradiation of nano-TiO2.