Sex-specific environmental influences on the development of autoimmune diseases

Sex differences in autoimmune diseases are evolutionarily tied to the fact that the female immune system is confronted with intense alterations during menstrual cycles, pregnancy and childbirth. These events may be associated with breaches in the mucosal epithelial layers that are shielding us from environmental factors. Associations between environmental agents and autoimmune diseases have been described extensively in prior studies. Little evidence, however, exists for sex-specific environmental effects on autoimmune diseases. In this review, we summarize studies involving this often-neglected aspect. We give examples of environmental factors that may influence the sex bias in autoimmunity. We conclude that most studies do not give insight into sex-specific environmental effects due to the influence of gender-selective social, occupational or other exposures. Prospective studies are needed in order to determine true sex-biased environmental influences. Finally, humanized murine models might aid in better understanding the mechanisms involved in sex-specific environmental effects on autoimmune diseases.

Graphical abstractFigure optionsDownload full-size imageDownload high-quality image (94 K)Download as PowerPoint slideHighlights► We review sex-specific environmental influences on systemic autoimmune diseases. ► We address chemical, physical and biological (microbial) factors. ► Most studies are biased due to gender-selective social, occupational or other exposures. ► Murine autoimmune models could give insight into potential mechanisms of sex skewing.