Occurrence of pharmaceuticals and perfluorinated compounds and evaluation of the availability of reclaimed water in Kinmen

Emerging contaminants have commonly been observed in environmental waters but have not been included in water quality assessments at many locations around the world. To evaluate the availability of reclaimed water in Kinmen, Taiwan, this study provides the first survey of the distribution of thirty-three pharmaceuticals and five perfluorinated chemicals in lake waters and water from local wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). The results showed that the target emerging contaminants in Kinmen lakes were at trace ng/L concentrations. In addition, most of the target compounds were present in the Jincheng and Taihu WWTP influents at ng/L concentrations levels, of which 5 compounds (erythromycin-H2O (1340 ng/L), ibuprofen (1763 ng/L), atenolol (1634 ng/L), acetaminophen (2143 ng/L), and caffeine (3113 ng/L)) reached μg/L concentrations. The overall treatment efficiencies of the Jincheng and Taihu WWTPs with respect to these pharmaceuticals and perfluorinated chemicals were poor; half of the compounds were less than 50% removed. Five compounds (sulfamethoxazole, erythromycin-H2O, clarithromycin, ciprofloxacin and ofloxacin) with risk quotient (RQ) values > 1 in the effluent should be further investigated to understand their effects on the aquatic environment. Additional and advanced treatment units are found necessary to provide high-quality recycled water and sustainable water resources.