Paleoclimate and weathering of the Tokaj (Hungary) loess–paleosol sequence

•14 geochemical weathering indices were applied to Hungarian paleosol/loess samples.•Recommendations for the choice of a suitable weathering index are given.•Transfer functions for mean annual temperature and precipitation were applied.•Results were compared and complemented with literature data.•MAT and MAP estimates are provided for a time period of 45 to 21 ka.

The Tokaj loess–paleosol sequence (Northeast Hungary) is a well-studied site in Southeast Europe where detailed paleoenvironmental reconstructions of the Quaternary have been carried out. In this study, the geochemical composition of samples from the upper part of the sequence (45–21 ka) was analyzed and a variety of commonly used weathering indices and element ratios were applied to estimate weathering intensity, a common semi-quantitative proxy of paleoclimatic conditions. Further, similarities and differences between these weathering indices and their sensitivity to changes in paleoclimatic conditions were assessed. Results indicate that all of them accurately track changes in weathering intensity and are, with minor exceptions, very similar to each other.Based on different transfer functions for major and trace element concentrations (XRF), mass-specific magnetic susceptibility (Χ) and stable carbon isotopic (δ13C) data, mean annual paleotemperature and mean annual paleoprecipitation for the time intervals of paleosol formation (45–27 ka) and dust deposition (27–21 ka) were calculated. Results differ depending on the respective transfer function and method but agree with (X-, δ13C-based), or slightly overestimate (XRF-based), previously published paleoclimate data of the region. XRF- and δ13C-based results converge to a mean annual temperature (MAT) range of 8.5–10 °C (paleosol) and 8–9 °C (loess) and a mean annual precipitation (MAP) range of 700–900 mm a− 1 (paleosol) and 550–700 mm a− 1 (loess). Χ-based results are most consistent with literature data and yield MATs of 8.4 °C (paleosol) and 6.6 °C (loess) and MAPs of 300–500 mm a− 1 (paleosol) and 220 mm a− 1 (loess).