Using X-ray tomography to quantify earthworm bioturbation non-destructively in repacked soil cores

X-ray tomography is used increasingly to study the macroporosity resulting from earthworm activity. However, macropores are not the only features visible on the images; other zones resulting from bioturbation by earthworms can be detected due to differences in greylevels. Four different soil cores were incubated with two earthworm species at two different densities (4 or 8 adults of the endogeic species Allolobophora chlorotica or 2 or 4 adults of the anecic species Aporrectodea nocturna). A fifth core without earthworms was used as a control. After six weeks, the cores were analysed by X-ray tomography using a medical scanner. The 3D earthworm burrow systems were reconstructed and a new and specific algorithm was used to determine other bioturbated zones (BZ) that were physically influenced by the earthworms. Expected differences in the structure of the burrow systems between the endogeic and anecic species were observed: the A. chlorotica burrows were narrower and more numerous, more branched and less vertical. When the earthworm density doubled, the volume and length of the A. chlorotica burrow system increased whereas no increase was observed for A. nocturna. The BZ, which were located in the upper section of the cores, represented almost the same volume as the macropores. These zones tended to be located further from the burrows in the A. chlorotica cores: 50% of the voxels corresponding to BZ were at a distance greater than 4 and 5.5 mm from the closest macropore for A. nocturna and A. chlorotica, respectively. Three processes may have contributed to form these zones, which are characterised by increased soil density: (i) soil compaction around the burrows during burrow creation, (ii) cast deposition in the burrows (burrow backfilling) and (iii) crushing of casts on the burrow walls (so called cutanes). The longer distance between BZ and macropores in A. chlorotica cores suggests that the proportion of burrow backfilling is higher for the endogeic species compared to the anecic species. If we assume that BZ located further than 10 mm from any burrow are actually burrows backfilled with casts, the volume of burrow backfilled in our study ranged from 14 to 18% for A. chlorotica and from to 8 to 10% for A. nocturna.

Graphical abstractFigure optionsDownload full-size imageDownload as PowerPoint slideResearch Highlights► Not only earthworm macropores can be seen and detected on CT-images but also other kinds of bioturbated zones can be revealed. ► Other bioturbated zones can be either belowground casts or soil compaction around the macropores. ► These other bioturbated zones represented about the same volume as macroporosity itself. ► The proportion of burrow backfilling is higher for the endogeic earthworm species compared to the anecic species.