Origin and models of oceanic transform faults

Mid-ocean ridges sectioned by transform faults represent prominent surface expressions of plate tectonics. A fundamental problem of plate tectonics is how this pattern has formed and why it is maintained. Gross-scale geometry of mid-ocean ridges is often inherited from respective rifted margins. Indeed, transform faults seem to nucleate after the beginning of the oceanic spreading and can spontaneously form at a single straight ridge. Both analog and numerical models of transform faults were investigated since the 1970s. Two main groups of analog models were developed: thermomechanical (freezing wax) models with accreting and cooling plates and mechanical models with non-accreting lithosphere. Freezing wax models reproduced ridge–ridge transform faults, inactive fracture zones, rotating microplates, overlapping spreading centers and other features of oceanic ridges. However, these models often produced open spreading centers that are dissimilar to nature. Mechanical models, on the other hand, do not accrete the lithosphere and their results are thus only applicable for relatively small amount of spreading. Three main types of numerical models were investigated: models of stress and displacement distribution around transforms, models of their thermal structure and crustal growth, and models of nucleation and evolution of ridge-transform fault patterns. It was shown that a limited number of spreading modes can form: transform faults, microplates, overlapping spreading centers, zigzag ridges and oblique connecting spreading centers. However, the controversy exists whether these patterns always result from pre-existing ridge offsets or can also form spontaneously at a single straight ridge during millions of year of accretion. Therefore, two types of transform fault interpretation exist: plate fragmentation structures vs. plate accretion structures. Models of transform faults are yet relatively scarce and partly controversial. Consequently, a number of first order questions remain standing and significant cross-disciplinary efforts are needed in the future by combining natural observations, analog experiments, and numerical modeling.

► Oceanic transform faults are fundamental features of plate tectonics. ► Models of transform faults are relatively scarce and partly controversial. ► Two possibilities for the faults origin: fragmentation vs. accretion structures. ► Cross-disciplinary observation and modeling efforts are needed in the future.