Contemplating modes of assessing citizenship competences

Assessment of citizenship competences has become common practice following the statutory assignment of citizenship education to schools in many countries. Assessment can serve various goals. The suitability of various types of instruments depends on the alignment with the goals intended. In this paper we evaluate four types of instruments and their suitability to assess citizenship competences. Tests and questionnaires, portfolios, game-based assessment, and vignettes are each evaluated in terms of seven attributes relevant to instruments aiming to assess students' citizenship competences. Our results indicate no single type of instrument aligns with all attributes, and expanding the range of available instruments appears the best way forward so that educators and researchers can make a choice that fits their purpose. The analysis presented provides further insight into the strengths and weaknesses of particular assessment types.