Plant-made virus-like particle vaccines bearing the hemagglutinin of either seasonal (H1) or avian (H5) influenza have distinct patterns of interaction with human immune cells in vitro

Plant-made VLP vaccines bearing H1 or H5 rapidly elicit immune activation and cytokine production in human PBMC. Differences in the VLP-immune cell interactions suggest that features of the HA proteins themselves, such as receptor specificity, influence innate immune responses. Although not generally considered for inactivated vaccines, the distribution and characteristics of influenza receptor(s) on the immune cells themselves may contribute to both the strength and pattern of the immune response generated.