Legacy and novel brominated flame retardants in interior car dust - Implications for human exposure

•Indoor car dust was tested for BFRs levels in Greece.•Cars manufactured before 2008 exhibited higher dust PBDEs content than younger cars.•NBFR levels were higher in cars manufactured after 2008 than older cars.•Intake of BFRs was higher via dust ingestion than dermal absorption and for toddlers than adults.•Intake of BFRs via ingestion was several orders of magnitude lower than RfD values.

Brominated flame retardants (BFRs) are organobromine compounds with an inhibitory effect on combustion chemistry tending to reduce the flammability of products. Concerns about health effects and environmental threats have led to phase-out or restrictions in the use of Penta-, Octa- and Deca-BDE technical formulations, increasing the demand for Novel BFRs (NBFRs) as replacements for the banned formulations. This study examined the occurrence of legacy and NBFRs in the dust from the interior of private cars in Thessaloniki, Greece, aged from 1 to 19 years with variable origin and characteristics. The determinants included 20 Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) (Di-to Deca-BDEs), four NBFRs such as Decabromodiphenylethane (DBDPE), 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy)ethane (BTBPE), 2-ethylhexyl-2,3,4,5-tetrabromobenzoate (TBB), and bis(2-ethylhexyl)-3,4,5,6-tetrabromophthalate (TBPH), three isomers of hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), and tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA). The concentrations of ∑20PBDE ranged from 132 to 54,666 ng g−1 being dominated by BDE-209. The concentrations of ∑4NBFRs ranged from 48 to 7626 ng g−1 and were dominated by DBDPE, the major substitute of BDE-209. HBCDs ranged between <5 and 1745 ng g−1, with alpha-HBCD being the most prevalent isomer Finally, the concentrations of TBBPA varied from <10 to 1064 ng g−1. The concentration levels and composition profiles of BFRs were investigated in relation to the characteristics of cars, such as year of manufacture, country of origin, and interior equipment (type of car seats, electronic and electrical components, ventilation, etc.). The average daily intakes of selected BFRs (BDE-47, BDE-99, BDE-153, BDE-209, TBB, BTBPE, TBPH, DBDPE, HBCDs and TBBPA) via ingestion and dermal absorption were estimated for adults and toddlers. The potential health risk due to BFRs was found to be several orders of magnitude lower than their corresponding reference dose (RfD) values.

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