Role of the MAPK pathway in the observed bystander effect in lymphocytes co-cultured with macrophages irradiated with γ-rays or carbon ions

The finding that the RIBE of high-LET radiation could persist for a much longer period than that of γ-rays implies that particle radiation during space flight could have a high risk of long-term harmful effects. An appropriate intervention targeting the MAPK pathway may have significant implications in reducing this risk.