Associative learning and timing

•Temporal information is acquired rapidly in associative learning.•CR's are timed correctly from the start of associative learning.•Specific temporal knowledge can be disclosed even in when CR's are not emitted.•Rich temporal maps are formed during associative learning.

Associative learning and timing are clearly inter-related, but are they separate processes or is timing a core part of the associative structure? Emerging research suggests that temporal information is acquired rapidly and that CR's are timed correctly from the start of associative learning. Moreover, specific temporal knowledge can be disclosed even in cases where CR's were not emitted. Timing is not only crucial for CR timing, but also contributes to CR expression through the comparison of reinforcer rates, and through the formation of temporal maps. A conceptual framework is proposed in which timing is a core part of the content of associative learning.