Effect of filler incorporation route on the properties of polysulfone–silver nanocomposite membranes of different porosities

Flat sheet porous polysulfone–silver nanocomposite membranes were synthesized by the wet phase inversion process. The effects of casting mixture composition and nanoparticle incorporation route on the morphological and separation properties of prepared membranes were studied by comparing nanocomposites of different preparations with silver-free controls. Silver nanoparticles were either synthesized ex situ and then added to the casting solution as an organosol or produced in the casting solution via in situ reduction of ionic silver by the polymer solvent. Nanocomposite membranes of three types differing in skin porosity and macrovoid structure were prepared. The structure and properties of nanocomposites were interpreted in terms of the coupling between the processes of nanoparticle formation and gelling of the polymer-rich phase during phase inversion. Larger nanoparticles preferentially located in the skin layer were observed in composites prepared via the ex situ method while in situ reduction of silver led to formation of smaller nanoparticles homogeneously distributed along the membrane cross-section. In some cases, incorporation of nanoscale silver formed ex situ resulted in macrovoid widening and an order of magnitude decrease in hydraulic resistance accompanied by only a moderate decrease in rejection. The accessibility of the silver nanoparticles embedded in the membrane was quantitatively assessed by the degree of the growth inhibition of a membrane biofilm due to the ionic silver released by the nanocomposites and was found to depend on the method of silver incorporation.