Policy inclusiveness and niche development: Examples from wind energy and photovoltaics in Denmark, Germany, Finland, and Spain

In this article, we analyse the influence of the inclusiveness of policies on niche development. We focus on political inclusion. A typology is developed for analysing the influence of the relative degree of inclusion in policy processes and outcomes on niche development. The electricity industry is used as the empirical example of a regime, and wind energy and photovoltaics for niches. A qualitative case study of the relative inclusion in policies in Denmark, Germany, Finland, and Spain is presented. We found that the policies in Denmark and Germany are the most inclusive, then those in Spain, and those in Finland the least. The same countries have the most and the least developed niches. It seems that a relatively high degree of inclusion in policy processes and outcomes enhances niche development. Our findings also suggest that the role of the government is more political than is often proposed.