Social disorganization/social fragmentation and risk of depression among older people in Japan: Multilevel investigation of indices of social distance

► This study examined the effects of social distance and social capital on elderly people's depressive symptoms in rural areas of Japan. ► Individual-level income and educational social distance are associated with respondents' depressive symptoms. ► In general null associations between school district-level social distance and individual-level depressive symptoms. ► Area-level social capital buffered the adverse effects of income and education social distance on depressive risk. ► In the case of social distance based on hometown of origin, stronger community social capital accentuated the adverse impact on depression.