Levulinic acid production from renewable waste resources: Bottlenecks, potential remedies, advancements and applications

The rise in fuel and oil prices has driven the hunt for alternative renewable resources for production of chemical intermediates or biofuels since they provide a sustainable solution to an increasing demand. Levulinic acid (LA), one of the platform chemicals, can be produced chemically using renewable resources such as starch waste and lignocellulosic biomass which sounds to be an attractive alternative owing to its abundance and environmentally benign nature. The presence of acidic carboxyl and ketone carbonyl groups in LA impart a remarkable pattern of reactivity to levulinic acid and allow it to form several derivatives having significant applications in various fields, thereby making it a versatile green chemical. The present review deals with the current status of the technologies available for levulinic acid production, its recovery and the array of applications in several areas along with the gridlocks involved at each step of conversion process and suggest some possible remedies. Further, it not only throws light on the recent advancements in LA production approaches along with the avant-garde biotechnological approach for its biosynthesis but also depicts the current market scenario of commercial LA industry. The review also discusses the future R&D scope with an aim to enhance the yield of levulinic acid production and to make the process energy-efficient and cost-effective.