Cradle-to-gate environmental impacts of sulfur-based solid-state lithium batteries for electric vehicle applications

In this study, we investigate the cradle-to-gate environmental impacts of a pre-production sulfur-based solid-state lithium pyrite battery suitable for electric vehicle applications. We apply process-based attributional life cycle assessment methodology, utilizing laboratory data, literature, U.S. patents, and US-EI 2.2 life cycle inventory database to estimate the materials and energy required for the battery and its anticipated manufacturing and assembly processes. We estimate a mass of 440 kg and a specific capacity of 182 Wh kg−1 for a battery with 80 kWh energy capacity and 100 kW power, capable of powering a full-size battery electric vehicle with a 200-mile range. The estimated cumulative energy demand (CED) and global warming potential for a 100-year time horizon (GWP100) are 3300 MJ kWh−1 and 199 kg CO2 eq. kWh−1, respectively. The combination of direct and upstream energy associated with clean dry-room operation accounts for the biggest share of the total CED (75%) and GWP100 (73%), followed by the cathode paste (10% and 6%, respectively). The energy demand and environmental impacts of the clean dry-room and cathode paste present opportunities to improve production processes and reduce costs. CED and GWP100 impacts associated with battery production are lower than well-to-wheel energy consumption and emissions for a vehicle with the same size and range. The pyrite battery delivers higher specific capacity than the current Li-ion battery chemistries while its CED and GWP100 environmental impacts are comparable.