When men and women differ in self-esteem and when they don’t: A meta-analysis

•The gender difference increased from the 1970s to until the 1990s.•The gender difference declined from the 1990s to recently.•The gender difference is larger in more developed and liberal countries.•A 3-stage model (Acceptance, Awareness, and Progress) accounts for these trends.

A meta-analysis of gender differences in self-esteem (1148 studies from 2009 to 2013; total N = 1,170,935) found a small difference, g = 0.11 (95% CI = 0.10–0.13), favoring males. Additionally, (1) the gender difference increased with age until late adolescence, and declined afterwards; (2) Whites, Hispanics, and Asian Americans showed the same gender difference whereas African Americans and marginal groups (e.g., immigrants) did not show any difference; (3) the gender difference was larger in more developed countries characterized by values that espouse equality and freedom; and (4) inspection of previous reviews showed that the gender difference emerged after the 1970s, increased until 1995, and declined afterwards. A three-stage model of comparison processes was proposed to account for these results.