Force measurements with the atomic force microscope: Technique, interpretation and applications

After the review of Cappella [B. Cappella, G. Dietler, Surf. Sci. Rep. 34 (1999) 1-104] 6 years of intense development have occurred. In 1999, the AFM was used only by experts to do force measurements. Now, force curves are used by many AFM researchers to characterize materials and single molecules. The technique and our understanding of surface forces has reached a new level of maturity. In this review we describe the technique of AFM force measurements. Important experimental issues such as the determination of the spring constant and of the tip radius are discussed. Current state of the art in analyzing force curves obtained under different conditions is presented. Possibilities, perspectives but also open questions and limitations are discussed.