Learning and knowledge in early internationalization research: Past accomplishments and future directions

This article provides an evaluative overview of international entrepreneurship literature, in which the issues of learning and knowledge feature as central components underlying the causes, processes, and outcomes of early internationalization. We rely on Huber's (1991) categorization of five knowledge acquisition types – experiential learning, vicarious learning, searching, grafting, and congenital learning – to organize our review and to guide our examination of the literature. We discuss convergent findings in terms of conceptual and empirical issues and set forth areas for future research.