The measurement of values across cultures: A pairwise comparison approach

We examined the value orientations of Americans and Japanese, comparing Likert scale rating and pairwise comparison methods. Consistent with a recent meta-analysis of studies using rating scales (Oyserman, Coon, & Kemmelmeier, 2002), Americans and Japanese did not differ on individualism, and Americans scored higher than Japanese on collectivism. However, the pairwise comparisons revealed that Americans scored higher than Japanese on self-direction, an indicator of individualism, whereas Japanese scored higher than Americans on Benevolence, an indicator of collectivism. These findings suggest that cross-cultural comparisons based on Likert ratings may have been compromised by response artifacts.