Water-flushing toilets: Systemic development and path-dependent characteristics and their bearing on technological alternatives

In this study, I analyse the historical process that led to embedding water-flushing toilets in the Western world, then I explore innovative developments connected to alternative toilet solutions that use less water. The core argument is that path-dependent characteristics are found at both the systemic level and the level of daily practices. Systemic development and its embedding into daily practice are described based on existing studies of water supply and sewage systems, with a discussion of how daily practices changed and contributed to a lock-in. Then current attempts to introduce alternative toilet solutions are analysed. I conclude by suggesting that established water-flushing routines impede the distribution of alternative toilet solutions, although some potential remains.