A meta-analysis of how signaling affects learning with media

The signaling effect states that learners profit from cues that highlight the organization of specific relevant information within materials. This meta-analysis includes 103 studies and N = 12,201 participants. 139 retention and 70 transfer performance measures were used to determine separate mean effect sizes. Cognitive load, motivation/affect, learning time, and eye-tracking data were included as dependent variables to explain possible effect mechanisms. Additionally, nine possible moderators (e.g., type of signaling) were identified. The retention (g+ = 0.53, 95% CI [0.42, 0.64]) and transfer (g+ = 0.33, 95% CI [0.22, 0.43]) sizes support the positive effect of signaling on motivation/affect, learning time, and learning-relevant fixations. Cognitive load was significantly reduced. In contrast to the expertise reversal effect hypothesis, prior knowledge was not identified as a moderator of the signaling effect. The results were interpreted using media learning theories. Recommendations for future studies are included herein.