Beyond the nuclear family: an evolutionary perspective on parenting

•Much ‘parenting’ is done by alloparents in our species.•Alloparenting is universal but who helps varies somewhat between populations.•Fathering is typical but facultative.•Mothering, fathering and alloparenting all vary ecologically and culturally.•Models of parenting put too much emphasis on the nuclear family as the normative human family.

There has been a recent shift in the evolutionary behavioural sciences towards the view that parenting in our species is cooperative, and that mothers require help from others to raise children successfully. This shift is not yet reflected in psychological models of parenting, which still emphasise the centrality of the nuclear family. This emphasis is problematic both because it neglects the importance of alloparents, and because it assumes the fathering role is consistent across societies. While paternal investment is often substantial in our species, it is also shows considerable ecological variability. This article highlights recent, cross-cultural research on the cooperative nature of human ‘parenting’, and illustrates the flexible nature of both parenting and alloparenting across human societies.