Deer density effects on vegetation in aspen forest understories over site productivity and stand age gradients

▶ Higher deer density areas had greater total forest floor vegetation mass, and greater mass of sedge, fern and small (<0.25 m) tree and shrub seedlings, but only 1/10th the forb mass. ▶ High deer density areas showed a near complete failure to recruit trees above 0.9 m tall potentially changing the long-term rate and direction of forest succession. ▶ Deer, site productivity and stand age all affected total and species-specific woody stem densities, but deer effects were much more consistent. ▶ Interactions between deer density, site productivity, and stand age were present for a myriad of factors.