The utility of Trillium and Maianthemum as phyto-indicators of deer impact in northwestern Pennsylvania, USA

Based on these results we conclude that these two species do not track spatial variation in deer impact across the KQDC. Relationships between deer impact and indicator characteristics could be clouded by factors such as environmental variables not measured in our study and legacy effects of high deer abundance. Both species will bear further investigation in a long-term monitoring project within the KQDC and could serve as a measurement of recovery in areas that have experienced high deer impact when deer populations are lowered and monitoring sites are analyzed through time.