Enhancing the performance of lead–acid batteries with carbon – In pursuit of an understanding

•Conflicting notions of the beneficial effect of carbon are reconciled.•The evidence underpinning mechanisms is reviewed and rationalised.•A combination of different forms of carbon offers maximum benefit.

The inherently poor dynamic charge-acceptance of the lead–acid battery can be greatly improved by the incorporation of additional carbon to the negative plate. An analysis is undertaken of the various ways by which the carbon may be introduced, and of the proposed mechanisms whereby its presence proves to be beneficial. It is intended that such an investigation should provide a guide to the selection of the optimum carbon inventory.