Environmental remodelling of GABAergic and glutamatergic neurotransmission: Rise of the anoxia-tolerant turtle brain

•The western painted turtle is an extremely anoxia-tolerant vertebrate.•Anoxic brain exhibits decreased glutamatergic and increased GABAergic signaling.•Mitochondrial depolarization, calcium release and a decrease in [ROS] signal anoxia.•The mechanism involves opening of mitochondrial KATP channels and transition pores.•Mitochondrial low oxygen signaling plays a key role in turtle brain anoxia-tolerance.

Climate cooling over the past one hundred thousand years has resulted in seasonal ice cover at northern and southern latitudes that has selected for hypoxia and anoxia tolerance in some species, such as freshwater turtles. At the northern reaches of their range, North American freshwater turtles spend 4 months or more buried in the mud bottom of ice covered lakes and ponds. From a comparative perspective this gives us the opportunity to understand how an extremely oxygen-sensitive organ, such as the vertebrate brain, can function without oxygen for long periods. Brain function is based on complex excitatory (on) and inhibitory (off) circuits involving the major neurotransmitters glutamate and, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) respectively. When a mammalian brain becomes anoxic, glutamate levels rise within minutes resulting in excitotoxic cell death which does not occur in anoxic turtle brain. The response in turtle brain has been remodelled – GABA levels rise rapidly resulting in large inhibitory GABA receptor currents and inhibition of glutamate receptor function that together depress neuronal activity.