Effect of core–shell copper oxide nanoparticles on cell culture morphology and photosynthesis (photosystem II energy distribution) in the green alga, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

The effect of core–shell copper oxide nanoparticles with sizes smaller than 100 nm on cellular systems is still not well understood. Documenting these effects is pressing since core–shell copper oxide nanoparticles are currently components of pigments used frequently as antifouling paint protecting boats from crustacean, weed and slime fouling. However, the use of such paints may induce strong deteriorative effects on different aquatic trophic levels that are not the intended targets. Here, the toxic effect of core–shell copper oxide nanoparticles on the green alga, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii was investigated with regards to the change of algal cellular population structure, primary photochemistry of photosystem II and reactive oxygen species formation. Algal cultures were exposed to 0.004, 0.01 and 0.02 g/l of core–shell copper oxide nanoparticles for 6 h and a change in algal population structure was observed, while the formation of reactive oxygen species was determined using the 2′,7′-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate marker measured by flow cytometry. For the study of the photosystem II primary photochemistry we investigated the change in chlorophyll a rapid rise of fluorescence. We found that core–shell copper oxide nanoparticles induced cellular aggregation processes and had a deteriorative effect on chlorophyll by inducing the photoinhibition of photosystem II. The inhibition of photosynthetic electron transport induced a strong energy dissipation process via non-photochemical pathways. The deterioration of photosynthesis was interpreted as being caused by the formation of reactive oxygen species induced by core–shell copper oxide nanoparticles. However, no formation of reactive oxygen species was observed when C. reinhardtii was exposed to the core without the shell or to the shell only.