Nested open systems: An important concept for applying ecological footprint analysis to sustainable development assessment

•A nested open system is an important concept in sustainable development (SD) assessment.•The Earth, the spatial scale that is meaningful for addressing SD, is a nested open system.•In pursuing SD, the relative areas of different land categories are important.•Integrating carrying capacity and connection among nations into EF analysis would enhance its potential for SD assessment.

The calculation procedures and index interpretation of ecological footprint (EF) analysis, a method for assessing sustainable development (SD), have been continuously improved since the early 1990s. To identify potential for further improvement, this study compared the information revealed by existing EF applications for SD assessment with the core concerns of SD and found that intra-generational equity has not been appropriately addressed in the existing applications of EF analysis for SD assessment because the concept of nested open systems has been ignored. This study then argued that the concept of nested open systems should play a critical role in addressing global SD and conducting national EF analysis for SD assessment. Finally, the potential for improving EF analysis for SD assessment at the global and national scales was discussed.