Identification and remediation of sulfation in lead-acid batteries using cell voltage and pressure sensing

► Real-time aging diagnostic tools were developed for lead-acid batteries using cell voltage and pressure sensing. ► Different aging mechanisms dominated the capacity loss in different cells within a dead 12 V VRLA battery. ► Sulfation was the predominant aging mechanism in the weakest cell but water loss reduced the capacity of several other cells. ► A controlled-pressure charging algorithm was designed and applied to reverse sulfation in the weakest cell. ► Desulfation increased the sulfated cell capacity by 41% and the battery capacity by 25%.