A sustainability index with attention to environmental justice for eco-city classification and assessment

Sustainability programs and their assessments have often been criticized for failing to support social justice. Eco-city development has also raised similar concerns. This research was conducted in order to address such problems. Specifically, this paper develops a new sustainability index that emphasizes environmental justice for the purpose of better classifying and assessing eco-cities. The proposed index measures equity among places as a result of eco-city development. Specifically, this index indicates instances in which a certain location achieves sustainability through means detrimental to another location. Thus, the index, comprised of environmental, economic, and social indicators of sustainability, may also be used to foster justice among diverse locations (urban centers, suburbs, rural areas, and neighboring cities) by highlighting the genuine motives behind eco-city development. One preliminary finding from the application of this classification is that oftentimes, eco-city development is not completed in the environmental, economic, or social interests of the people. Official eco-cities tend to serve government officials' interest in upper mobility. Developer eco-cities tend to be commercial expansions or developments focused on growth, profit, and model demonstration. Both official and developer eco-cities degrade the environment. They are also likely to develop urban centers at the environmental expense of other places. The economic growth of official and developer eco-cities is accompanied by worsening income inequality and social injustice. As a result, these types of eco-cities fail the sustainability performance assessment. Conversely, eco-cities founded by the citizens or by donors tend to focus on social and economic equity. This study was completed using qualitative research methods, including field work in 29 eco-cities throughout China and various countries. This field work was conducted from 2006 to 2014. Data was collected through interviews with 87 government officials, as well as environmental experts, grassroots environmentalists, residents, and real estate developers. The findings reveal that the majority of Chinese eco-cities have been overlooked in global eco-city literature. The research also calls for effective sustainability management in order to avoid the development of eco-cities that negatively impact the environmental and social interests of surrounding areas.