Bidirectional associations between temperament and parenting and the prediction of adjustment problems in middle childhood

This study examined longitudinal associations between child temperament (fearfulness, irritability, positive emotionality, self-regulation) and parenting (acceptance, involvement, inconsistent discipline) in predicting children's internalizing and externalizing problems using a community sample (N = 92) of children (ages 8-11) and their mothers. Cross-reporter measures of all variables were created using mother and child report on questionnaires. Multiple regression analyses were used to test whether parenting predicted later temperament, controlling for prior levels of temperament and parenting, whether temperament predicted later parenting, controlling for prior levels of temperament and parenting, and whether temperament and parenting together accounted for subsequent adjustment problems. Child irritability predicted greater inconsistent discipline. Child fearfulness and positive emotionality predicted greater maternal acceptance. Maternal inconsistent discipline predicted greater fearfulness and irritability. The evidence suggests bidirectional relations between temperament and parenting such that inconsistent discipline may increase negative emotionality in children, and child irritability may evoke inconsistent discipline by parents. Fearfulness, irritability, acceptance, and inconsistent discipline demonstrated unique effects above all other temperament and parenting variables in predicting adjustment problems, suggesting that temperament and parenting are additive in their effects on child adjustment.