Appropriate vegetation indices for measuring the impacts of deer on forest ecosystems

Increasing deer density can cause serious degradation of forests in the Americas, Europe, and Asia. To manage deer impacts, evaluating their current impacts on forest ecosystems is necessary, usually via vegetation indices. However, the relationship between vegetation indices and absolute deer density, while taking into account tree size, snow depth, light condition, and the type of understory vegetation, has never been investigated. We examined the relationship between various vegetation indices and absolute deer density in 344 study plots in the deciduous broad-leaved forest of Yamanashi Prefecture, central Japan. In each plot, debarking and browsing, along with the coverage and maximum height of understory vegetation, were surveyed. Estimated deer densities for 82 5 × 5-km mesh units ranged from 0.8 deer/km2 to 32.7 deer/km2. The percentages of debarked trees within a plot ranged from 0 to 84%. Debarking was promoted by high deer density, small tree size, and thick snow. The effect of tree size on debarking was stronger than that of deer density. Occurrence of browsing on understory vegetation was higher at higher deer densities, and where understory vegetation was dominated by evergreen dwarf bamboo. Coverage and maximum height of understory vegetation were unaffected by deer density but increased with canopy openness and the dominance of dwarf bamboo in the understory. Overall, we predict that debarking of small trees living in heavy snow areas should occur even at low deer densities (<10 deer/km2). Browsing on dwarf bamboo should occur at intermediate deer densities (10-30 deer/km2), while debarking of thick trees living in low snow areas should occur only at high deer densities (≥30 deer/km2). Our study shows that debarking and browsing on understory vegetation are appropriate indices for evaluating deer impacts on forest ecosystems, but that tree size, snow depth, and the type of understory vegetation should also be considered.