Light availability and ungulate browsing determine growth, height and mortality of Abies alba saplings

The strong impacts of ungulates on fir recruitment are thus more due to the strong preference of the ungulates for this tree species rather than to a low tolerance of fir to browsing. We do not recommend planting firs in forest gaps due to higher mortality rates, since: (1) competition with ground vegetation is higher in gaps, (2) they risk becoming desiccated and (3) mouse browsing is more likely. Thus we provide evidence that A. alba regeneration benefits from moderately shaded conditions.