Yolk contributes steroid to the multidimensional endocrine environment of embryos of Niveoscincus metallicus, a viviparous skink with a moderately complex placenta

Maternally-derived testosterone (T) and 17-β-oestradiol (E2) provide epigenetic mechanisms by which mothers can actively influence offspring phenotype. In amniotes, maternal steroids may be derived from yolk or transferred across the placenta according to parity mode. Viviparous reptiles utilise both a yolk and a placenta to support their developing embryos, but it has not yet been confirmed whether yolk is a source of maternal T and E2 in such species. We investigated this question using the viviparous lizard Niveoscincus metallicus as our model species. We measured T and E2 in the yolks during vitellogenesis, immediately post-ovulation and at progressive stages of gestation. Our results confirm that yolk is a substantial source of T and E2 in N. metallicus. Contrary to the pattern seen in many oviparous species, we did not observe a marked decline in yolk concentrations of either T or E2 after the initiation of sexual differentiation in the embryos. Rather, we found no statistically significant decline in yolk concentrations of both T and E2 post-ovulation. In viviparous reptiles that utilise both yolk and placenta to nourish their embryos, yolk likely plays an important role in these dynamics but that role is not yet clear. Further research is warranted to understand the importance of yolk steroids in the endocrine environment of the developing viviparous reptile.