Lethal effects of ichthyotoxic raphidophytes, Chattonella marina, C. antiqua, and Heterosigma akashiwo, on post-embryonic stages of the Japanese pearl oyster, Pinctada fucata martensii

The inimical effects of the ichthyotoxic harmful algal bloom (HAB)-forming raphidophytes Heterosigma akashiwo, Chattonella marina, and Chattonella antiqua on the early-life stages of the Japanese pearl oyster Pinctada fucata martensii were studied. Fertilized eggs and developing embryos were not affected following exposure to the harmful raphidophytes; however, all three algal species severely affected trochophores and D-larvae, early-stage D-larvae, and late-stage pre-settling larvae. Exposure to C. marina (5 × 102 cells ml−1), C. antiqua (103 cells ml−1), and H. akashiwo (5 × 103 cells ml−1) resulted in decreased success of metamorphosis to the trochophore stage. A complete inhibition of trochophore metamorphosis was observed following exposure to C. antiqua at 5 × 103 cells ml−1 and C. marina at 8 × 103 cells ml−1. In all experiments, more than 80% of newly formed trochophores were anomalous, and in the case of exposure to H. akashiwo at 105 cells ml−1 more than 70% of D-larvae were anomalous. The activity rates of D-larvae (1-day-old) were significantly reduced following exposure to C. antiqua (8 × 103 cells ml−1, 24 h), C. marina (8 × 103 cells ml−1, 24 h), and H. akashiwo (104 cells ml−1, 24 h). The activity rates of pre-settling larvae (21-day-old) were also significantly reduced following exposure to C. antiqua (103 cells ml−1, 24 h), C. marina (8 × 103 cells ml−1, 24 h), and H. akashiwo (5 × 104 cells ml−1, 24 h). Significant mortalities of both larval stages were induced by all three raphidophytes, with higher mortality rates registered for pre-settling larvae than D-larvae, especially following exposure to C. marina (5 × 102-8 × 103 cells ml−1, 48-86 h) and C. antiqua (103-8 × 103 cells ml−1, 72-86 h). Contact between raphidophyte cells and newly metamorphosed trochophores and D-larvae, 1-day-old D-larvae, and 21-day-old larvae resulted in microscopic changes in the raphidophytes, and then, in the motile early-life stages of pearl oysters. Upon contact and physical disturbance of their cells by larval cilia, H. akashiwo, C. marina and C. antiqua became immotile and shed their glycocalyx. The trochophores and larvae were observed trapped in a conglomerate of glycocalyx and mucus, most probably a mixture of larval mucous and raphidophyte tricosyts and mucocytes. All motile stages of pearl oyster larvae showed a typical escape behavior translating into increased swimming in an effort to release themselves from the sticky mucous traps. The larvae subsequently became exhausted, entrapped in more heavy mucous, lost their larval cilia, sank, become immotile, and died. Although other toxic mediators could have been involved, the results of the present study indicate that all three raphidophytes were harmful only for motile stages of pearl oysters, and that the physical disturbance of their cells upon contact with the ciliary structures of pearl oyster larvae initiated the harmful mechanism. The present study is the first report of lethal effects of harmful Chattonella spp. towards larvae of a bivalve mollusc. Blooms of H. akashiwo, C. antiqua and C. marina occur in all major cultivation areas of P. fucata martensii during the developmental period of their larvae. Therefore, exposure of the motile early-life stages of Japanese pearl oysters could adversely affect their population recruitment. In addition, the present study shows that further research with early-life development of pearl oysters and other bivalves could contribute to improving the understanding of the controversial harmful mechanisms of raphidophytes in marine organisms.