The evolution of marine protected area planning in Aotearoa New Zealand: Reflections on participation and process

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are a critical element of fisheries management and biodiversity conservation strategies. However, MPA planning is a complex undertaking that requires consideration of ecological and other knowledge, including indigenous knowledge, as well as balancing social, cultural, and economic interests. Engaging a range of stakeholders and indigenous partners in MPA planning, establishment, and management has consistently been identified as key to successful MPA implementation. This paper interrogates MPA planning in Aotearoa New Zealand, with a focus on the role of participation and collaboration in the development and implementation of MPAs. Previous and current MPA processes were evaluated using best practice principles drawn from international MPA and other participatory process literature. Several factors hypothesised to be associated with improvements and efficiencies in the involvement of participants in MPA decision making are assessed, including aspects of participation, best available information, social learning and capacity, fair and respective process, and efficiency of administration. Processes were compared before and after introduction of the New Zealand Marine Protected Areas Policy and Implementation Plan in 2005. Areas for improvement in future evolutions of MPA planning also emerged from this research; these centre primarily on the need for inclusive and balanced participation; inclusion of multiple values and information types in MPA decision-making; time to build trust and establish shared understanding; and resourcing. These recommendations represent a conceptualisation of MPAs operating within holistic social-ecological systems frameworks that encompass more than biodiversity conservation or extractive use, potentially redefining how MPAs are conceived of, developed, implemented and valued.