Principles of instructed language learning

This article represents an attempt to draw together findings from a range of second language acquisition studies in order to formulate a set of general principles for language pedagogy. These principles address such issues as the nature of second language (L2) competence (as formulaic and rule-based knowledge), the contributions of both focus on meaning and on form, the need to develop both implicit and explicit second language knowledge, the problems posed by the learner's 'built-in syllabus', the roles of input, output and interaction in learning, the importance of catering to individual differences in learners, and the need to assess language learning in terms of both free and controlled production. The principles draw on a variety of theoretical perspectives and are offered as 'provisional specifications' for a learning-centered language pedagogy.