Lead emissions from solar photovoltaic energy systems in China and India

► We model life-cycle battery lead (Pb) losses for PV goals in China (2020) and India (2022). ► Base-case projected losses are 386 kt (China) and 2030 kt (India). ► Projected losses are equal to 1/3 of global lead production in 2009. ► The best-case scenario reduces losses by 47% (China) and 44% (India). ► Simultaneous investment needed in environmental controls and product stewardship.