Who are the spatial voting violators?

Most applied work on spatial voting theory has sought to measure whether voters choose the candidates whose ideological positions are closest to theirs. Few of these studies have used the most basic measurement tool of proximity voting that the American National Election Studies (ANES) provide. This article uses ANES seven-point ideological placements from 1972 through 2004 to distinguish between spatial voters and voters who are ideologically closer to one candidate yet vote for another candidate. For each of these cycles, between 9 and 15% of voters are spatial voting violators. These individuals demonstrate below-average levels of political knowledge, activism, and interest, yet considering the direction of the violation yields a mix of potential incentives for violations.