The aging male hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis: Pulsatility and feedback

Aging results in insidious decremental changes in hypothalamic, pituitary and gonadal function. The foregoing three main anatomic loci of control are regulated by intermittent time-delayed signal exchange, principally via gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), luteinizing hormone (LH) and testosterone/estradiol (Te/E2). A mathematical framework is required to embody these dynamics. The present review highlights integrative adaptations in the aging male hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis, as assessed by recent objective ensemble models of the axis as a whole.