Upregulation of cerebral cortical glutathione synthesis by ammonia in vivo and in cultured glial cells: The role of cystine uptake

Glutathione (GSH) is a major antioxidant in the brain and ammonia neurotoxicity is associated with oxidative stress. In this study, we show that intracerebral administration of ammonium chloride (“ammonia”, final concentration 5 mM) via a microdialysis probe, increases by 80% the glutathione content in cerebral cortical microdialysates, and tends to increase its content in striatal microdialysates. Treatment with ammonia in vitro dose-dependently increased the glutathione content in cultured cerebral cortical astrocytes and a C6 glioma cell line. Significant effects have been observed after 1 h (astrocytes) or 3 h (C6 cells) of exposure and were sustained up to 72 h of incubation. A gradual decrease of the GSH/GSSG ratio noted during 3 h (astrocytes) or 24 h (C6 cells) of exposure, was followed by an partial recovery after 24 h of incubation, the latter phase possibly reflecting increased availability of de novo synthesized glutathione. In our hands, cystine, the precursor for astrocytic glutathione synthesis, was transported to astrocytes almost exclusively by system XAG−, while in C6 cells the transport engaged both system xc− (∼60% of uptake) and XAG− (∼40% of uptake). Ammonia in either cell type stimulated cystine uptake without changing the relative contribution of the uptake systems. The results are consistent with the concept of increased astrocytic glutathione synthesis as an adaptive response of the brain to ammonia challenge, and emphasize upregulation of cystine uptake as a factor contributing to this response.