Why women are progressive in education? Gender disparities in human capital, labor markets, and family arrangement in the Philippines

This paper shows mutually consistent evidence to support female advantage in education and disadvantage in labor markets observed in the Philippines. We set up a model that shows multiple Nash equilibria to explain schooling and labor market behaviors for females and males. Our evidence from unique sibling data of schooling and work history and from the Philippine Labor Force Survey support that family arrangement to tighten commitment between daughters and parents keeps a high level of schooling investments in daughters. Because wage penalty to females in labor markets means that education is relatively important as a determinant of their earnings, parental investments in their daughters’ education has larger impacts on the income of their daughters than on their sons. Parents expect larger income shared from better-educated adult daughters. In contrast, males stay in an equilibrium, with low levels of schooling investment and income sharing. Our results also imply that the above institutional arrangement is stronger among poor families.

► Female advantage in education and disadvantage in labor markets coexist in the Philippines.
► Family arrangement to tighten commitment between daughters and parents keeps a high level of schooling investments in daughters.
► The above institutional arrangement is stronger among poor families.