Advanced cardiovascular monitoring

Advanced cardiovascular monitoring has a role in the assessment and management of haemodynamically unstable critically ill and high-risk surgical patients, where clinical indicators and standard monitoring may be unreliable. This article reviews basic cardiovascular physiology, goal-directed haemodynamic therapy and advanced cardiovascular monitoring, including evidence and recommendations. Specific monitoring described includes invasive pressure monitoring, cardiac output monitoring, arterial waveform analysis, ultrasonic methods, non-invasive methods and newer technologies.