Real-time fMRI-based neurofeedback reinforces causality of attention networks

► Real-time fMRI (rtfMRI) neurofeedback reinforces causality of attention networks. ► rtfMRI method was evaluated via effective connectivity (EC) using Granger causality. ► EC of brain regions within attention network was reinforced from the rtfMRI. ► EC of brain regions between attention and resting-state networks was diminished. ► EC is useful to evaluate the efficacy of rtfMRI methods to modulate brain regions.