Integrating multiple perspectives on payments for ecosystem services through a social–ecological systems framework

• The SES framework can integrate different perspectives on PES.
• We present a taxonomy of key SES variables for analyzing PES.
• Ongoing use of the SES framework will enable insights on PES to cumulate.

This article presents a new conceptual approach to understanding payments for ecosystem services (PES) through a synthesis of distinct perspectives using a social–ecological system (SES) framework. While the different perspectives on PES provide valuable insights, each emphasizes different variables complicating comparisons across studies and contexts. We suggest that a more integrative conceptualization of PES—through synthesis with the SES framework—is necessary to take into account the broader social and ecological landscapes in which PES initiatives are embedded. The SES framework can provide insight into the multitude of factors that influence PES and facilitate the integration of knowledge from diverse disciplinary perspectives by providing a common language and consistency in the variables considered in analyses. This article also presents an initial effort in the development a taxonomy of key variables relevant to analyzing and understanding PES. With ongoing application of the SES framework, we expect the list of key variables to grow and be modified. We feel the SES framework will help scholars move beyond academic debates and towards a shared understanding of the potential and limitations of PES as a policy mechanism for addressing complex ecosystem service management problems in diverse SESs.