Phylogeny and biogeography of Poecilia (Cyprinodontiformes: Poeciliinae) across Central and South America based on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA markers

• Analyses included 18 species of Poecilia from six subgenera.
• A phylogeny was developed using mitochondrial (ATPase, COI) and nuclear (S7) markers.
• The P. (Allopoecilia) caucana complex is not monophyletic, and we advise taxonomic re-evaluation.
• Psychropoecilia colonized the Greater Antilles in the early Pliocene.
• Mollienesia expanded from Central America into South America.

Poeciliids are a diverse group of small Neotropical fishes, and despite considerable research attention as models in ecology and evolutionary biology, our understanding of their biogeographic and phylogenetic relationships is still limited. We investigated the phylogenetic relationships of South and Central American Poecilia, by examining 2395 base pairs of mitochondrial DNA (ATPase 8/6, COI) and nuclear DNA (S7) for 18 species across six subgenera. Fifty-eight novel sequences were acquired from newly collected specimens and 20 sequences were obtained from previously published material. Analyses of concatenated and partitioned mitochondrial DNA and nuclear DNA sets resulted in a well-supported phylogeny that resolved several monophyletic groups corresponding to previously hypothesized subgenera and species complexes.A divergence-dating analysis supported the hypothesis of the genus Poecilia dispersing into Central America in the early Pliocene (ancestors of Psychropoecilia + Allopoecilia + Mollienesia: 7.3–2.0 Mya) from predominantly South America. Subsequently, one lineage (subgenus Allopoecilia: 5.1–1.3 Mya) expanded deeper into South America from Lower-Central America, and one lineage expanded from Nuclear-Central America into South America (subgenus Mollienesia: 0.71–0.14 Mya). The subgenus Mollienesia diverged into three monophyletic groups that can be identified by nuptial male dorsal fin morphology and inner jaw dentition. A subclade of the unicuspid short-fins (subgenus Mollienesia) was the lineage that expanded into South America during the middle Pleistocene. Species in this subclade are now distributed across northern South America, where they are partially sympatric with Allopoecilia. However the P. (A.) caucana complex was not monophyletic, with P. (A.) wandae clustering in the Mollienesia subclade that expanded into South America. It is apparent that characters (body size, scale count, pigmentation, and gonopodium morphology) used to define the P. (A.) caucana complex are homoplastic and suggestive of rapid convergence in northern South America. Our improved taxon sampling and divergence-time calibration allowed for insights into the timing and direction of dispersals, and provides an improved understanding of the biogeographic history of an enigmatic group of fishes. Furthermore, we provided strong evidence for the monophyly of the subgenus Mollienesia and further substantiated its species complexes; therefore, we advise a taxonomic re-evaluation for the P. (A.) caucana complex to maintain monophyly of both Mollienesia and Allopoecilia.

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